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About culture and cuisine
General surveys:
Country sites
You can check sites that originate in a specific country for additional information. How? It's
easy. Go to Google, select "advanced search" and look
for the "domain" box. Type in the country's "endcode" (full list
here) and see what you get. This turned out to be the best way to research the history of Irish
Soda Bread (endcode .ie) and traditional Bulgarian foods (endcode .bg).
RECOMMENDED READING
Country-specific food history books
If you are conducting extensive research and need to identify books and journals originating from
a specific country, start by checking that country's National Library catalog. Major universities,
culinary schools, professional culinary organizations and trade associations are also excellent
starting points.
Foreign influence on American cooking
The impact of ethnic foods on American cuisine is a study of:
SOURCES FOR LEARNING ABOUT IMMIGRATION & AMERICA
ABOUT FOREIGN INFLUENCE ON AMERICAN CUISINE
HELP! I need a recipe now!!!
RecipeSource, select region, then country
Every country presents a unique buffet based on its geography, history, and people. What people
eat in all times and
places is a function of where they live (country? city?), who they are (religion/ethnic background)
and how much money
they have (wealthy usually eat better than the poor).
POPULAR TRADITIONAL CUISINE/OVERVIEW
TWO FOODS ASSOCIATED WITH FRANCE THAT ORIGINATED ELSEWHERE
Every country presents a unique buffet based on its geography, history, and people. What people
eat in all times and
places is a function of where they live (country? city?), who they are (religion/ethnic background)
and how much money
they have (wealthy usually eat better than the poor).
A SURVEY OF BRITISH FOODS THROUGH TIME
RECOMMENDED READING
Historic overviews
Period-specific information & primary sources (recently reprinted)
[Roman Britain]
[9th-12th centuries] see also history notes
[13th-15th centuries] see also history notes
[16th century] see also history notes
[17th century]
[18th century]
[19th century] see also history notes
[20th century]
SELECTED TRADITIONAL DISHES
Captain Cook's rations & mess
What kinds of food and drink were consumed on Cook's ships?
"In his journal for July 1772, Cook gives the following account of the provisions placed aboard the Resolution and
Adventure...Biscuit, flour, salt beef, salt pork, beer, wine, spirit [distilled alcohol], pease [dried peas], wheat,
oatmeal, butter, cheese [hard], sugar, oyle olive [olive oil], vinegar, suet, raisins, salt, malt, sour krout [sauerkrout],
salted cabbage, portable broth [dessicated soup], saloup, mustard, mermalade [marmelade] of carrots, water..."
Where live animals were taken on board?
Could the crew bring their own food on board? "Individuals, particularly the officers, supplemented their needs with personal provisioning; this might be Madeira [a
sweet wine] brought on board for their own use. In the case of the crew...it was usually what serendipity delivered into their
laps: lying fish or tired albatross."
What was a typical weekly menu for the crew?
"Each man was allowed every day one pound of Biscuit [thick, hard cracker] as much small Beer [very low alcohol] as he can drink
or a pint of Wine, or half a pint of Brandy, Rum, or arrack [alcoholic beverage], they will have besides on
What is scurvy?
How did Captain Cook prevent his crew from getting scurvy?
Which foods were brought to prevent scurvy?
The history of Italian food is a fascinating and complicated subject. Not quite sure how much
information you need, so we are sending you a variety of sources to begin your project:
Traditional favorites/basic overview:
History of popular Italian foods
Historic sources:
General overview
Historic surveys
Recommended reading
Medieval/Renaissance period
19th century
Italian-American cuisine
Every country presents a unique buffet based on its geography, history, and people. What people
eat in all times and
places is a function of where they live (country? city?), who they are (religion/ethnic background)
and how much money
they have (wealthy usually eat better than the poor).
TRADITIONAL GERMAN FOODS AND INGREDIENTS
SELECTED FOOD HISTORIES
RECOMMENDED READING: [your librarian will be happy to help you find these!]
Spain is a country rich in culinary heritage and famous foods. Each traditional dish tells a unqiue
story of
history, culture, agriculture, religion, economy, and human taste. As true with most countries,
different
regions have different specialties.
ABOUT CONTEMPORARY SPANISH CUISINE
You will find a nice overviews (with basic history) here:
RECOMMENDED READING (your librarian can help you get theses books):
HOW DID THE MOORS INFLUENCE SPANISH CUISINE?
"Introductions by the Arabs were...of fundamental importance to Spain's future. They are
particularly associated with the use of almonds (the essential ingredient for so many Spanish
desserts, baked goods, and confectionery items); with the introduction of citrus fruit (including
the lemon and the bitter (Seville) orange...sugar cane and the process of refining sugar from its
juice; many vegetables, among which the aubergine (eggplant) was outstanding; and numerous
spices such as cinnamon, nutmeg, sesame, coriander, aniseed, etc. The Arabs introduced rice to
the tidal flatlands of what is now Valencia...The use of saffron in paella is also something whch
stems from an Arab introduction."
"The occupation of Iberia by the Moors for seven hundred years had a great influence on the
cultural and culinary development of both Spain and Portugal. The Moors were a cultured and
sophistcated people who brought a new way of life to the Iberians and to the Roman colonists
who inhabited the peninsula at that time. Experts at irrigation, the Moors introduced the
cultivation of rice, now a staple food, and gourhg wtih them figs and citrus fruits, peaches and
bananas and may of the Eastern spices, including cumin and aniseed, which are used so much in
Iberian cooking today. They used almonds a great deal in the cooking of both savoury and sweet
dishes. The huge groves of almond trees along the Levante coast and the Algarve were originally
planted by the Moors. Today, in all the areas of the peninsula where the Moors once ruled, rich
and varied rice dishes, little cakes and confections made from eggs and almonds, cinnamon, butter
and honey, as well as crystallized fruit and the special turrones, sweet nougats, are part of the
Iberian legacy from the East."
Two popular examples of Spanish foods influenced by Moorish/Arab cuisine
POLVORONES &
PAELLA.
Andalusian cookbook/13th century is good for examples of specific dishes.
Reommended reading? Medieval Arab Cookery/Maxime Rodenberry et al
HISTORIES OF SELECTED TRADITIONAL SPANISH FOODS
PAELLA
"Paella, to be precise the Valencian paella, universally known as a traditional dish in Spanish
cooking, takes
its name from the utensil in which it is cooked and from the Spanish region on the shores of the
Mediterranean where the union and heritage of two important cultures, the Roman which gave us
the
utensil and the Arab which brought us the basic food of humanity for centuries: rice. The
etymological roots
of the word are of interest. Going back a long way one finds in the Sanskrit language the word pa,
which
means to drink, from which were derived the Latin terms patera, patina, patella, meaning a chalice
or
culinary utensil to be used for various purposes including frying. In Castilian there existed a
primitve form of
denomination paela and also tapella, so in an ancient dictionary we can read that patella is a pan
or paella
for frying'...In Isalmic Andalusia there were dishes based on rice with definite traditional and
symbolic
character, casseroles of rice and fish with spices which were eaten at family and religious feasts.
Later on,
when rice began to take on the chararcteristic of an everyday dish, it was combined with
vegetables, pulses,
and also some dry cod, in this way forming a part of the menu during Lent. Along the coast fish
always
predominates with rice. Perhaps as a hangover of these Islamic customs, in the orchards of
Valencia, and
as a special celebration, rice was cooked in the open air in a paella-pan with vegetables of the
season,
chicken, rabbit, or duck. With the sociological changes of the 19th century, social life became
more active,
giving rise to reunions and outings to the countryside. There also came into being the tradition,
still very
much alive, that men did the cooking of paella. This rice for special days evolved into a Valencian
paella. In
1840 in a local newspaper it was in fact given the name of Valencian paella. By natural process
the tradition
had already come into being. The ingredeints for the traditional dish are as folows: rice, fresh
butter beans,
tomato, olive oil, paprika, saffron, snails (or, a curious alternative, fresh green rosemary), water,
and salt.
The ancient tradition was to eat the paella directly from its pan, so the round pan, surrounded by
chairs,
was converted into a admirable 'Round Table'. The companions, which their spoons made of box
wood with
a fine finsih, began to eat, each one drawing out his triangle and limit, then meeting the geometical
centre
of the paella."
"Paella is a word that has come worldwide to mean a Spanish dish with a variety of seafood and
usually
some chicken. However, the word originally referred only to the pan in which the food was
cooked--a
paellera...Paellas actually come in endless varieties, depending upon the chef and on regional
specialties.
Those rice dishes that are made in paella pans, whatever the ingredients, are often referred to as
paellas,
although just as often the name of a rice dish is a description of its ingredients...Although
variations on
paella abound, no one will dispute that the home of paella, and of most Spanish rice dishes, is
Valencia.
Rice growing in Valencia was made possible when, more than a thousand years ago, the Romans
introduced irrigation, a system later perfected by the Arab invaders. It is thought that these same
Arab
conquerors brought rice to Valencia in the eighth century. Many centuries would pass, however,
before rice
would become the staple of the Valencian diet that it is today and become a basic crop of the
Valencian
economy...Purists insist that...Valencia is the only place in the world to eat a properly prepared
paella...Ask
a Spaniard what makes a perfect paella and never expect two opinions to coincide."
Related food? Risotto!
JAMONS (hams) FROM SERRANO & JABUGO
"Spain is famous for its huge dried mountain hams, jamon serrano, eaten raw, made from the lean
meat of
the wild Red Iberian pig. These are huge hams cured in the mountain areas near Madrid. The
temperature
is high, the pieces of meat large, so a quick penetration of salt is essential before drying. The fresh
meat is
packed into a clean cloth sack filled with crystalline salt and then placed on the basement floor.
Friends
and relatives visiting the house are expected to pop down to the basement and do a bit of jumping
on the
sack of meat. By compressing the ham, the drying and salting process is speeded up. Nowadays a
case of
strong Spanish wine can be used to weight the hams instead. By strange association, in the finale
of the film
Jamon Jamon, the two protagonists beat each other to a pulp using the hard, giant jamon serrano
as
weapons!"
About culinary research & about copyright.
Researching the culinary history of a particular country involves more than identifying
traditional foods in current cookbooks. What people eat in all places and through all ages
depends upon six primary factors:
Country/region specific culinary history:
, University of Pennsylvania
Many countries offer information about native food and cuisine (some include recipes) on their official government Web sites. Check
the Ministry of Culture and/or Tourist Bureau. If that doesn't work run a keyword search on the
terms "cuisine" or "recipe." (Hint...if you keyword "food" you will get lots of stuff on food
exports, companies,
subsidies and other social programs).
These sources are excellent for basic background information on specific country cuisines. Ask
your librarian to help you find:
--Volume 2, Part V: Food and Drink around the World (Grades 9+); includes extensive
bibliography for further research
--Dining customs and holiday traditions (all grades)
--Key ingredients, popular dishes, beautiful photos (all grades)
--overview of each country's popular foods, dining traditons, & recipes, good for pictures
--Brief country culinary profiles; separate entries for many traditional foods mentioned in the
primary article provide additional information. (Grades 6+)
--Popular foods, dining customs, and holidays meals for 55 countries; includes glossary of foods.
(Grades K-8)
---excellent source for major ingredients and cuisine summaries by world region & selected countries.
In all U.S. library catalogs, use the subject heading: cookery, country or country
adjective-history (as in cookery, italy-history or cookery, scottish-history). Scan the list...some
cities and regions have their own food histories. Start with your local library's catalog. If you
don't find what you need, use the Library of Congress
catalog. Your librarian can borrow books for you from other libraries...though it may take
some time (ie, if your report is due tomorrow this isn't an option). Many country-specific
cookbooks contain historic notes along with popular recipes. They are worth checking out.
The study of German American (Italian American, Greek American, etc.) cooking starts with the
study of traditional homeland cuisine and immigration patterns. Wherever immigrants settled, so
did their foods and recipes. Over time, some of these recipes morphed into uniquely American
foods. Think chicken fried steak and hot dogs.
---Port of entry were the first areas of culinary influence (New York, Boston). Study
settlement patterns (Germans in Milwaukee, Italians in Pittsburgh PA, Greeks in North Carolina
)...to examine regional influence & local contributions.
The Cookie Tin, nice collection of cookies by
country; includes holiday cookies!
France
FRENCH CULINARY HISTORY (SURVEYS THROUGH TIME)
PERIOD-SPECIFIC SOURCES
---"France," five page summary with lots of references
---prehistory to present, cooking methods and selected historic menus
---history of French ingredients, recipes, chefs, and cooking methods. Arranged alphabetically.
---"France," two page synopsis and histories of specific recipes.
PRIMARY SOURCES
Several major French cookery texts have been scanned, republished and translated into English.
Selected popular
titles:
OUR FAQS ON SELECTED FRENCH FOODS
United Kingdom
, Elizabeth
Moxon
---details on dining customs, popular foods, trade & economics
---evolution of foods and recipes grouped by commodity
---historic overview & histories of dishes/ingredients
---period overviews and selected recipes for modern kitchens
---period foods, cooking techniques, dining customs and selected recipes for modern kitchens
---historic overview, recipes with history notes
---general overview, food map & traditional recipes
Captain James Cook provisioned his ship for a two year journey. He expected to supplement these rations with indigenous fare. Adequate
fresh water and antiscorbutics to ward away scurvy played critical roles in his success.
---Sailors & Sauerkraut: Excerpts from the Journals of Captain Cook's Expeditions All Pertaining to Food With Recipes to
Match, Barbara Burkhardt, Barrie Andugs McLean & Doris Kochanek [Grey's Publishing:Sidney BC] 1978 (p. 23)
Yes.
"...cows, sheep, pigs, chickens...The live-stock was for leaving on desert islands needful of such provender and the poultry
was to provide eggs during the voyage."
---Sailors & Sauerkraut (p. 12)
Yes. Generally, the higher the rank, the more "personal" food was packed. This was a matter of economy (wealthy people could
afford to supply their own consumables) and space (officer's quarters were roomier than regular crew).
---Sailors & Sauerkraut (p. 15-16)
Monday. Half a pound of Butter, about ten ounces of Cheshire Ceese and as much boild Oatmeal or Wheat as the can eat.
Tuesday. Two 4 pound pieces of Beef, or one four pound piece of Beef three pounds of Flour and one pound Raisins or half a
pound of suet.
Wednesday. Butter and cheese as on Monday and as much boild Pease as they can eat.
Thursday. Two 2 pound pieces of Pork with Pease.
Friday. The same as Wednesday.
Saturday. The same as Tuesday.
Sunday. The same as Thursday.
---Sailors & Sauerkraut (p. 23-24)
Scurvey is a disease caused by lack of Vitamin C. Without remediation, it is deadly. Since fresh fruits and vegetables were not possible on long voyages,
other foods had to be substituted. Captain Cook was committed to ensuring his crew received plenty of Vitamin C.
"Customarily, on ocean voyages lasting longer than three months, scurvy decimated the crew, and it was common practice to
double overstaff in preparation for the toll of this nutritional deficiency disease. By the middle of the eighteenth century it
was known how to prevent scurvy; James Cook was the first sea captain to put that knowledge into practical application, and
he practiced those principles with such vivacity that on none of the three voyages did any man die of scurvy."
---Sailors & Sauerkraut (p. 13-14)
Preserved foods high in vitamin C were provisioned by Cook. These included sauerkraut & salted cabbage.
Italy
RECOMMENDED READING
---Mediterranean, Southern & Northern Europe (extensive bibliographies for further study)
---there are dozens of books that are period/region specific. If you need to focus on a particular
time and/or place, your school's librarian can help you find the sources you need.
Germany
HISTORIC INFORMATION
---"Germany," (p. 131-140)
---"Germany," (p. 188-192)
---historic overview, separate entries for specific food items and recipes
---perfect school reports, great pictures and many recipes
---general cuisine history & selected traditional recipes
---traditional foods & dining customs
Spain
"The most common misconsception about Spanish food is that it is spicy hot. In fact, Spanish
foods are
noted for their fresh natural flavors and a minimum of seasonings, and many an authentic Spanish
dish
perpared elsewhere fails simply because of the lack of quality and freshness in the basic
ingredients. The
staples of the Spanish kitchen include olive oli, tomatoes, garlic, and onions. Fresh bread is always
on the
table not only for each meal but also for each course except dessert. Partly because they are the
freshest,
and partly because of regional price and preferences, the Spanish cook adds local specialties from
land or
sea to the staples to produce distinctive regional dishes. Cocida and gazpacho are national dishes
of Spain,
but there as many variations as there are kitchens, and each variation is stoutly defended as being
the best.
Fruits and subtle light seasonings, combinations of fruits and nuts with meats and fish, and dishes
based on
rice are all influences from Muslim times. But the oldest additions to Spain's table--wine and olive
oil--have
never lost their importance."
---You Eat What You Are: People, Culture and Food Traditions, Thelma Barer-Stein
[Firefly
Books:Ontario] 1999 (p. 394)
---excellent for basic foods, holiday meals & dining customs
---nice summary of popular/traditional foods and regional favorites
---detailed history & dozens of recipes
---brief overview of Spain's culinary history
The Moorish occupation (711AD--1492AD) left its greatest mark on the region of Spain called
Andalucia. Here you will find a cuisine rich with examples of Arab culinary influence. Spices,
ingredients, cooking techniques mingled to create a new cuisine. Many of these included sugar
and spices.
---Oxford Companion to Food, Alan Davidson [Oxford University Press:Oxford] 1999 (p.
741)
---World Atlas of Food, Jane Grigson editor [Mitchell Beaszley:London] 1974 (p. 170)
Paella, endless combinations of various meats, fish, shellfish, rice and vegetables, is considered by some to be
one of
Spain's "national" dishes. Indeed, the ingredients and method of paella make it an excellent
culinary
example of the Spain's history and peoples.
---Oxford Companion to Food, Alan Davidson [Oxford University Press:Oxford] 1999 (p.
566-7)
---The Foods and Wines of Spain, Penelope Casa [Alfred A. Knopf:New York] 1982 (p.
173-4)
[NOTE: Ms. Casas includes several recipes for paella in this book.]
---Pickled, Potted and Canned: How the Art and Science of Food Processing Changed the
World,
Sue Shepard [Simon & Schuster:New York] 2000 (p. 72)
About these notes: Food history can be a complicated topic. These notes are not meant
to be a
comprehensive treatment of the subject, but a summary of salient points supported with culinary
evidence. If you
need more information we suggest you start by asking your librarian to help you find the books
and articles cited in these notes. Article databases are good for locating current recipes, consumer
trends, and new products.
Have questions? Ask!
Research conducted by Lynne
Olver, editor The Food
Timeline. About this site.