iThe Food Timeline--teacher resources
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Food Timeline>K-12 teacher resources for food history lessons

New! USA food history guide

agriculture economics & historic prices law & regulation science & nutrition
lesson plans menus & manners real people or brand names? food reference
historic cookbooks state foods adapting old recipes libraries & education

Agriculture
New World foods: introduced to Europe by the Columbian Exchange
History of Horticulture, Purdue University
English Farming Past and Present, Lord Ernle [1936]
Agropolis Museum, food & agricultures of the world
Plant Vegetative Morphology and Vegetables, chart from Texas A & M includes origins
Plants of the Bible, Dr. Lytton John Musselman, Old Dominion University

Economics & production
American food & commodity prices: historic & current
1492, Columbian Exchange--Neglected Crops 1492 From a Different Perspective, FAO
17th century--New France--Cultivating Canadian gardens (includes Native American agriculture)
1650--present U.S.--A Concise History of America's Brewing Industry, Martin H. Stack, Rockhurst University
1776--present U.S.--History of American Agriculture, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture
1840, USA---Census of Agriculture
1848, Chicago--Chicago slaughterhouses
1891, USA---Food Supply of the Future, W. O. Atwater
1898, Michigan---Sugar beet industry
1902, New York City--Kosher Meat Boycott, protesting rising costs
1919, U.S.--War Gardening and Home Storage of Vegetables, National War Garden Commission
1942-1945, U.S.--Victory gardens
1942-1945, U.S.--Harvest during the War Years, includes posters
1945, United Nations--Food and Agriculture Organization

Law & regulation
1155, London--Worshipful Company of Bakers
1266, London--Assize of Bread punishable by the Judgment of the Pillory
1662, England--Hearth Tax
1709, New Jersey--An Act for Regulating Ordinaries
1764, American colonies--The Sugar Act
1773, American colonies--The Tea Act
1794, America--Whiskey Rebellion
1815-1846, Great Britain--British Corn Laws
1820-present, USA---Milestones in U.S. Food and Drug Law History
1862, USA---Charles M. Wetherill, first chemist of the Dept. of Agriculture sets up a laboratory
1871, USA---National Marine Fisheries Service, our nation's first Federal conservation agency
1893, USA--Nix v. Hedden, U.S. Supreme Court rules tomatoes are vegetables
1894, USA---Origin of U.S. Dietary Guidelines
1906, USA---The Food and Drugs Act of 1906 & Food Labeling begins, U. S. Food & Drug Administration
1906, USA--History of Food and Drug Regulation in the United States, Marc T. Law
1907, USA---The first food inspectors are selected
1912, USA--Maraschino Cherries defined by the U.S. Food & Drug Administration
1917, USA--U.S. Food Administration (headed by Herbert Hoover)
1937, USA---Hot Lunches for a Million School Children, WPA
1942-1945, USA--Food rationing stamps
1946, USA---National School Lunch Act, international history, U.S. Dept. Of Agriculture (more details here)
1963, United Nations---Codex Alimentarius (international food standards)
1964, USA---Food Stamp Act
1993, European Union---Protected food names:
2002, USA---Legal definition of white chocolate Desgination of Origin and Geographical Identification
2007, USA---Organic food regulations, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture
2008, USA---Food Regulations: 7 CFR (USDA) & 21 CFR parts 100-199 (FDA)
Nutrition
US Dietary Guidelines
National Nutrient Database/U.S. Dept. of Agriculture ...current nutrient values for thousands of foods, including manufactured items (frozen pizza, potato chips, etc.)
Fast Food Facts, nutritional analysis of items served in major U.S. chains
Nutrition Analysis Tool, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
Science & technology
History of cooking & Kitchens, Dr. Alice Ross
Museum of cooking implements/Michigan State University

Prehistoric food processing techniques, Zhou-Lin Sung
Ancient Greece & other cultures---Humoral theory of diet
1753, Great Britain---A Treatise of the Scurvy, James Lind
1806, USA---Frederic Tudor, the Ice King/Harvard
1845, Ireland--The Irish Potato Famine Fungus & Ireland's Great Famine
1861, Paris--Pasteurization
1900s, USA---What Was Home Economics?, Cornell University
1910, Utah--Dry Farming, John A. Widstoe PhD
1912, USA--Scoville Units, Wilbur Scoville creates the chili pepper heat scale
1924, USA--Frozen food
1940, UK--Organic farming
1949, United Nations--Food Composition Tables from the Food and Agriculture Organization
1974, USA--Universal Product Codes (UPCs) first used to scan food items
1968, USA--The Green Revolution and Dr. Norman Borlaug
1990s, Great Britain--Genetically Modified Crops & the Environment, FoodFuture
1992--Food Pyramid, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture--includes links to ethnic/cultural food pyramids
1999--The State of Food Insecurity on the World, Food & Agriculture Organization (U.N.)
2003---How Food Preservation Works, overviews of modern methods
2005---New Dietary Guidelines for Americans

general food reference
Food Resource, Oregon State University
1852+, New York--Core Historical Literature of Agriculture, Cornell University
1888+, Kansas--Historic publications, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station
FoodReference (events, quotes, festivals etc.)

A core list of food history reference books...(our ready reference shelf)
American Century Cookbook: The Most Popular Recipes of the 20th Century/Jean Anderson
American Food: The Gastronomic Story/Evan Jones
America's First Cuisines/Sophie D. Coe
An A-Z of Food and Drink/John Ayto
The Cambridge World History of Food, 2 volumes/Kenneth F. Kiple & Kriemhild Conee Ornelas
Eating in America/Waverly Root & Richard de Rochemont
Encyclopedia of American Food and Drink/John F. Mariani
Food: A Culinary History/Jean-Louis Flandrin & Massimo Montanari
Food and Drink in Britain: From the Stone Age to the 19th Century/C. Anne Wilson
The Food Chronology/James L. Trager
Food in History/Reay Tannahill
Food in the Ancient World From A to Z/Andrew Dalby
History of Food/Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat
Larousse Gastronomique [completely revised and updated] 2001
A Mediterranean Feast/Clifford A. Wright
Nectar and Ambrosia: An Encyclopedia of Food in World Mythology/Tamra Andrews
Oxford Companion to Food/Alan Davidson (2nd edition edited by Tom Jaine, 2006)
Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America/Andrew Smith
Pickled, Potted, and Canned/Sue Shepard
Rituals of Dinner/Margaret Visser
300 Years of Kitchen Collectibles/Linda Campbell Franklin--5th ed.

Historic cookbooks (digitized collections, facsimiles & reprints)

Duke University: Advertising cookbooks, 1885-1929
Thomas Gloning: Digitized texts, German texts, 1350-1896
Project Gutenberg: Cooking texts, various years
Coquinaria.nl, Medieval Dutch texts (Dutch and English)
Cindy Renfrow: Historic Culinary and Brewing Documents Online, extensive collection
Michigan State University: Feeding America: The Historic American Cookbook Project, 1798-1922
Marleen Willebrands: 16th & 17th century Dutch cookbooks (in Dutch)

Facsimiles & reprints

Acanthus Books, facsimile cookbooks from antiquity to present
Foodbooks, preserving America's culinary past
Old Cookbooks and Food History, international list, Henry Notaker

Interpreting & adapting historic recipes

Cooking the *real stuff* from original recipes sounds easy, but it's not...even if you're lucky enough to have access to ancient roasting pits, colonial beehive ovens, conestoga kitchens and fireless cookers. What did the colonial housewife mean by when she wrote in her recipe "butter the size of an egg?" Exactly how hot was a "hot oven?" How did the Virgina housewife know when her hams were finished smoking? Was the Cincinnati housewife who cooked in the 1920s more likely to use single or double acting baking powder? This is complicated stuff. Historic hen's eggs were generally smaller than the ones we have today; hot ovens & smoked hams were a matter of experience and the preference/propensity for using *new-fangled* food items were (as they are today) a matter of money, tradition, and personal taste.

Truth is, most old recipes were not much more than shopping lists with cursory prep notes. Detailed instructions were not considered necessary because it was understood that whoever cooked the food already knew the basics. Measurements are time/country/food specific. Did you know some culinary historians say we Americans measure with objects (as opposed to weight) because of our pioneer heritage? Conestoga wagons had plenty of cups & spoons but very few reliable scales. Scientific cven temperatures and exact measurements had no place in pre-industrial kitchens...which explains why food was commonly *served forth* when it was *done.* Standard measurements and detailed cooking instructions were a by-product of the Industrial Revolution and are commonly attributed to Fannie M. Farmer, principal of the Boston Cooking School.

There is no single place to obtain all of the historic conversions necessary to interpret & recreate [redact] original historic recipes in your kitchen. This does not mean your task is impossible. Quite the contrary.

Many food historians agree on these points:

  1. If you are working with an original text look for notes regarding measurements used
    ---guidelines for the new cook, conversion charts or handwritten notes
  2. Check current & adapted cookbooks for similar recipes
    ---this will help interpret the *hot* oven (475 degrees) & provide modern measurements
  3. Use common sense--if the recipe seems to call for too much salt, cut it down
    ---maybe the salt used in ancient times was much more concentrated than today?
  4. Ask for help! Many living history museums have staff who specialize in foodways (recreating original recipes, cooking in old kitchens & cultivating heirloom gardens). The trick is to find the right person. Be sure to check the museum's description to get the right location and time period (Old Sturbridge Village recreates inland Massachusetts in 1830s) BEFORE you contact the foodways people.
  5. No matter how close you come to the original recipe the end-product will probably taste different from what people ate long ago. Even if you cook it in the *traditional* way. Why? Because the food we buy today is different from the food they used back then.
General guidelines Conversion tables & adaptation notes
  • Ancient Rome--A Taste of Ancient Rome, Iliaria Gozzini Giacosa (p. 211)
  • Medieval Europe--Take a Thousand Eggs or More, Volume 2, Cindy Renfrow (p. 600-606)
  • Colonial cookery--The Virginia House-wife, Mary Randolph [with historical notes and commentaries by Karen Hess] (p. 297-299)
  • Pioneer/cowboy cooking--Chuck Wagon Cookin', Stella Hughes (p.103)
  • Late 19th century America--Savory Suppers and Fashionable Feasts: Dining in Victorian America, Susan Williams (p. 205)
  • Victorian baking--Victorian Cakes, Caroline B. King [Introduction & notes by Jill Gardner] (p. 201-208)
  • 19th century Russia--Classic Russian Cooking: Elena Molohovets' A Gift to Young Housewives, Joyce Toomre [translator] (p. 69-73; 96-97)
  • 1930s--Cape Cod Cook Book, Susanne Cary Gruver (p. 3-4)

Libraries & Museums
Food Museums, international directory
Culinary Institute of America Conrad N. Hilton Library
Johnson & Wales University Culinary Archives & Museum
Los Angeles Public Library Menu collection--searchable by keyword, restaurant, cuisine & date
Michigan State University Feeding America: The Historic American Cookbook Project
New York Public Library Culinary History: A Research Guide, collection--includes menus
Rutgers University, Sinclair Jerseyana Cookbooks
Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Culinary Holdings-- repository for MFK Fisher & Julia Child
University of Iowa, Szathmary Culinary Arts Collection
University of Michigan, Janice Bluestein Longone Culinary Archive
University of Pennsylvania, Aresty Collection of Rare Books on the Culinary Arts
Virginia Tech, Peacock-Harper Culinary History Collection, school also offers scholarships to study culianry history

Advanced degrees & specialized learning
Adelaide University, Australia, with Le Cordon Bleu, Master of Arts, Gastronomy
Boston University Metropolitan College, Master of Liberal Arts, Gastronomy
Insitute of Culinary Education (ICE), Center for Food Media (NYC)
...food styling, cookbook writing, food history, restaurant reviewing &c.
New School, Food Studies (NYC)
New York University, Master of Arts, Food Studies
Hearth cooking classes

Food writing courses:

French Culinary Institute (NYC)
Institute for Culinary Education (NYC)

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About this site


http://www.foodtimeline.org/food2.html
© Lynne Olver
1999
12 September 2009